The Sandalwood Files

Cropwatch comments: Further proof, if it were needed, that some Aromatherapy (AT) organisation officials are 'in denial' about the role of aromatherapy as a consumer market in the serious demise of sandalwood species - here Preen attempts to shift the blame to the perfumery trade. Further, Preen argues that Santalum album is not actually endangered (the IUCN Red List http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/31852/all classifies it as vulnerable), wrings her hands a little about sandalwood smuggling, and pledges faith in the much-criticised sandalwood replanting schemes to eventually solve the problem 30-40 years hence. Cropwatch currently observes that little, if any, Sandalwood oil East Indian is currently available on the spot market, and what there is, is practically always adulterated - it is of note that AT professional organisations have no formal analytical standards for sandalwood oil used in aromatherapy. Further, the carbon footprint of sandalwood oil is particularly unacceptable wrt climate change concerns, with excessive energy consumption occurring as a result of long distillation times. Therefore by continuing to defend the use of sandalwood oil in AT, one can only conclude that any ecological interests have been inappropriately sold out to the commercial interests of AT essential oil traders, who anyway have an unhealthy & unseen influence on the policy of many AT professional organisations. Further, aromatherapists are likely to be indirectly supporting gangland by consuming sandalwood oil, most of which is either smuggled with or without the help of corrupt officials, or otherwise illegally produced. This is a completely wrong-headed article in Cropwatch's opinion, and needs refuting in further detail.

Australian Sandalwood.

AAP General News Perth (Australia) Dec 12^th 2000 “Qld: Five fined for sandalwood harvesting” “WA: sandalwood claims would be dealt with if true: Court”.

Abstract: Story alleging that West Australian government officials were exporting sandalwood to dealers in Taiwan who had offered state officials bribes or prostitutes.

AAP General News (Australia) Nov 18 (2002)

Abstract: Five people fined in the Cairns Magistrate Court for illegal harvesting of the protected sandalwood plant, the Queensland EPA reportedly sa

Adams D.R., Bhatnagar S.P. & Cookson R.C. (1975) “Sesquiterpenes of Santalum spicatum” Phytochemistry 14(5-6), 1459-1460.

Anon (2002) “A Crop in Crisis” – a section of “A Calming Influence”

Soap, Perfumery & Cosmetics (Oct 2002) p42-3.

Applegate Graham B, Davis Allan GW & Annable Peter A (1990) “Managing Sandalwood for Conservation in N. Queensland, Australia” in Proc of the symposium on sandalwood in the Pacific: April 9-11, 1990, Honolulu, Hawai/technical co-ordinators: Lawrence Hamilton, C. Eugene Conrad. Pub: Symposium on Sandalwood Conservation (1^st: 1991: Honolulu, Hawaii).

Applegate G.B. & McKinnell F.H. (1993) “The Management & Conservation Status of Santalum species occurring in Australia.” In McKinnell F.H. ed. Sandalwood in the Pacific Region. Symposium 2^nd June 1991 at XVII Pacific Science Congress, Honolulu, ACIAR Proceedings No. 49, 5-12.

Barrats D.R. (1987) “Initial observations on flowering and fruiting in Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) A. DC the Western Australian sandalwood.” Mulga Research Centre, Australia 4, 61-65.

Barrats D.R. (1987) “Germination & planting out techniques for the Western Australian sandalwood Santalum spicatum. Mulga Research Centre Journal 9, 31-32.

Barrats D.R., Wijesuriya S.R. & Fox J.E.D. (1985) “Observations on foliar nutrient content of sandalwood (Santalum spicatum R. Br. DC.) Mulga Research Centre Journal 8, 81-91.

Birch A.J., Moslyn K.M.C. & Penfold A.R. (1953) "The sesquiterpene alcohols of Eucarya spicata Sprague & Summ." Aust. J. Chem 6, 391-394.

Bolt C. (2001) “Tax scheme controversy fells plantation timber company” The Financial Review 31 July 2001 p12.

Brand J.E., Robinson N & Archibald R.D. (2003) “Establishment & growth of sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) in south-western Australia: Acacia host trials.” Australian Forestry 66(4), 294-299.

Brand J.E. & Jones P.J. “The influence of landforms on sandalwood (Santalum spicatum (R.Br) A.DC.) size structure & density in the North East Goldfields, Western Australia.” Rangeland Journal 24(2), 219-226.

Brand J.E. (2002) “Review of the Influence of Acacia species on establishment of Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) in Western Australia Conservation Science Western Australia 4(3), 125-129. Rangeland Journal 21(2), 220-228.

Brand J.E. (1999) “Ecology of sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) near Paynes Find & Menzies, Western Australia: size structure & dry-sided stems” Rangeland Journal 21(2), 220-228.

Brand J.E. (1993) “Preliminary observations on ecotypic variations in Santalum spicatum. 2. Genotypic variation.” Mulga Research Centre Journal 11, 13-19.

Brand J.E. (1999) “Ecology of Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) near Paynes Find & Menzies, Western Australia: size structure & dry-sided stems.” Rangeland Journal 21(2), 220-228.

Brand J.E., Crombie D.S. & Mitchell M.D. (2000) “Establishment and growth of sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) in south-western Australia: the influence of host species.” Australian Forestry 63(1), 60-65.

Brand J.E., Ryan P.C. & Williams M.R. (1999) “Establishment and growth of sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) in south-western Australia: the Northampton pilot trial.” Australian Forestry 62(1), 33-37.

Braun N.A. & Meier M. (2004) “Western Australian & East Indian Sandalwood Oil – A Comparison” Euro Cosmetics 12(1), 22-29.

Braun N.A., Meier M. & Pickenhagen (2003) "Isolation & chiral GC analysis of beta-bisabolols - trace constituents from the essential oil of Santalum album L. (Santalaceae). J. Essent. Oil Res. 15(1), 63-65.

Brophy J.J., Fookes C.J.R. & Lassak E.V. (1991) “Constituents of Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) A. DC. Wood oil.” J. Essen. Record Re.s 3, 381.

Burfield T. & Wildwood C. (2004) “Cropwatch 2: Australian Sandalwood Oil: a tale of Spin & Hype” at http://www.cropwatch.org/cropwatch2.htm & www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~nodice/

Byrne M., McDonald B. & Brand J. (2003) “Phylogeography & divergence in the chloroplast genome of Western Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) Heredity 91(4), 389-395.

Byrne M., McDonald B., Broadhurst L, & Brand J. (2003) “Regional Genetic Differentiation in Western Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) as revealed by nuclear RFLP analysis.” Theoretical & Applied Genetics 107(7), 1208-1214.

CALM (2001) (Dept of Conservation & Land Management 2001) “New Sandalwood Contracts for Station Owners” Media Release 17^th July Perth: Dept of Conservation & Land Management.

Choupechoux R. (1931) Contribution a l'etude de l'essence de Santal Australie. pub. Lyon, Boso & Riou 1931.

Crossland T. (1982) “Response to fertiliser treatment by seedlings of sandalwood, Santalum spicatum (R.Br) DC.” Annual Report, Mulga Research Centre Australia 5, 13-16.

Crossland T. ”Preliminary investigations into germination and establishment of Sandalwood, Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) DC. Annual Report, Mulga Research Centre Australia 4, 61-65.

Donovan R.J. (undated) A history of the sandalwood industry of Western Australia Battye Library, Perth, Australia

Fox J.E.D. & Brand J.E. (1993) “Preliminary observations on ecotypic variations in Santalum spicatum. 1. Phenotypic variation.” Mulga Research Centre Journal 11, 1-12.

Fergeus J. (undated pamphlet) “Australian Sandalwood Aromatic Review” Australian Botanical Products Pty Ltd.

Fox J.E.D. & Wijesunya S.R. “Sandalwood planting with property owners” Mulga Research Centre Journal 8, 123-127.

Flanagan F. & Barrett D.R. (1993) “Sandalwood Nuts as Food” Mulga Research Centre Journal 11,21-26.

Gearon V. (2000) at http://www.essentiallyoils.com/Newsletters/October_2000_Newsletter/october_2000_newsletter.html

Gearon V. (2002) Aromatherapy Today 24, Dec 2002 p21

Henschke I. (2000) Sandalwood brings sweet smell of success. Landline. Australian /Broadcasting Corp http://www.abc.net.au/landline/stories/s206172.html

Heuberger E., Gearon V., Birbeck S., Buchbauer G. (2002) “The essential oil of Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) – effects of different samples on human physiology & subjective evaluation, 33^rd ISEO, Sept 2002, Lisbon, Portugal.

Kauber K. “Australian Sandalwood oil – Acute Oral Toxicity and Acute Dermal Toxicity”, Scantox, Denmark 2000 (unpublished).

Kealley I.G. (1991) “The Management of Sandalwood” Dept of Conserbvation & Land Management, W. Australian Wildlife Management Program No 8, 36p.

Kerr J. (2000) “Essential Oil Profile – Australian Sandalwood Oil” Aromatherapy Today 15, 8-12.

Kerr J. (2002) “Editorial Comment” Aromatherapy Today 24 Dec 2002 p32-33.

Liu Y.D., Longmore R.B., Boddy M.R. & Fox J.E.D. (1997) “Separation & identification of triximenynin from Santalum spicatum R. Br. Journal of the Americ. Oil Chemists Soc. 74(10), 1269-1272.

Liu Y.D., Longmore R.B. (1997) “Dietary sandalwood seed oil modifies fatty acid composition of mouse adipose tissue, brain & liver.” Lipids 32(9), 965-969.

Liu Y.D., Longmore R.B. & Kailis S.G. (1997) “Proximate & fatty acid composition changes in developing sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) seeds.” J of the Science of Food & Agriculture 75(1), 27-30.

Liu Y.D., Longmore R.B., Fox J.E.D. (1996) “Separation & identification of ximenynic acid isomers in the seed oil of Santalum spicatum R. Br. as their 4,4-dimethyloxazoline derivatives.” Journal of the Americ. Oil Chemists Soc. 73(12), 1729-1731.

Liu Y.D., Longmore R.B. & Kailis S.G. (1995) “A comparison of kernel compositions of sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) seeds from different Western Australian locations. Mulga Research Centre Journal 12, 15-21.

Lonergan O.W. (1990) “Historical Review of Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) Research in Australia”. Perth: Research Bulletin No 4 Dept of Conservation & Land Management Dec 1990 p28.

McKinnell F.H. (1990) “Status of management & silvicultural research on Sandalwood in W. Australia & Indonesia” In Hamilton L. & Conrad C.E. ed. Proceedings of the Symposium on Sandalwood in the Pacific; April 9-11 Tech. Rep PSW-122, Pacific Research Station, Forest Service, UJS Dept of Agric, Honolulu, 19-25.

Moretta P., Ghisalbert E.L., Piggott M.J & Trengove R.D. (1998) “Extraction of oil from Santalum spicatum by supercritical fluid extraction.” ACIAR Proceedings Series 84, 83-85

Cropwatch comments: According to ISO 9235, the supercritical fluid extraction of aromatic material produces an extract; it cannot be termed an essential oil.

Mullholland J. “An investigation of the harvesting processing and export of Western Australia sandalwood (Santalum spicatum).” - abstract of Masters thesis University of Australia; summary available at the website of Institute of Foresters of Australia http://www.ifa.unimelb.edu.au/abstracts/master/1994/mulholland1994.htm

Murphy M.T., Garkakalis M.J. & Hardy G.E.S.J. “Seed catching by woylies Bettongia penicillata can increase sandalwood Santalum spicatum regeneration in Western Australia” Austral. Ecology 30(7), 747-755.

Murthy S.G. (1985) “Sandalwood: Case Study of a Resource in Decline.” Garden 16-19.

Oates A. (1989) The Story of Sandalwood The Museum of the Golfields Kalgoorlie

Piggot M.J., Ghisalberti E.L. & Trengove R.D. (1997) “West Australian Sandalwood Oil: Extraction by Different Techniques and Variations of the Major Components in Different Sections of the Same Tree” Fl. & Frag. J. 12, 43-46.

Radomiljac A. (2000) see: http://users.bigpond.net.au/sellwood/kimsoc/pasttalk00.htm

Radomiljac, A.M. 1998. “The influence of pot host species, seedling age and supplementary nursery nutrition on Santalum album (Linn.) plantation establishment within the Ord River Irrigation Area, Western Australia.” Forest Ecology and Management 102(2–3), 193–201.

Raychaudhuri S.P. & Varma A. (1980) “Sandal spike” Review of Plant Pathology 59(3), 99-107.

RIRC (undated) see: http://www.rirdc.gov.au/champions/MtRomanceAustralia.html

Robson K. (2004) “Experiences with Sandalwood in plantations in the South Pacific & N. Queensland.” In: Prospects for high value hardwood in the “dry” tropics of N. Australia. Proceedings of a workshop held in Mareeba, N. Queensland, Australia 19-21^st Oct 2004. pub. Private Forestry North Queensland Association Inc. N. Queensland.

Rugkhla A. & Jones M.G.K. (1998) “Somatic embryogenesis & platelet formation in Santalum album & S. spicatum.” J of Exptl. Botany 49(320), 563-571.

Rugkhla A., McComb J.A. & Jones M.G.K. (1997) “Intra- & inter-specific pollination of Santalum spicatum & S. album.” Australian J of Botany 45(6), 1083-1095.

Samson, Basil (1980): The camp at Wallaby Cross. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies; 199-202. Sawyer (1892) through Applegate Graham B, Davis Allan G.W. & Annable. Peter A. (1990) “Managing Sandalwood for Conservation in N. Queensland, Australia” in Proc of the symposium on sandalwood in the Pacific : April 9-11, 1990, Honolulu, Hawai/technical co-ordinators: Lawrence Hamilton, C. Eugene Conrad. Pub: Symposium on Sandalwood Conservation (1^st: 1991: Honolulu, Hawaii).

Sen-Sarma P.K. (1982) “Insect Vectors of Sandal spike disease” European J of Forest Pathology 12(4/5), 297-299.

Shea S.R., Radmomiljac A.M., Brand & Jones P. (1998) “An Overview of Sandalwood and the Development of sandal in Farm Forestry in W. Australia”. ACIAR Proceedings 84, 9-18.

Shellie R, Marriott P., Morrison P. (2004) " Comprehisive two-dimensional gas chromatography with flame-ionisation and time-of-flight mass spectrometry detection: qualitative & quantitative analysis of West Aiustraliasn sandalwood oil" J Chromatog Sci. 42(8), 417-422

Abstract: The use of gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS), GC-time-of-flight MS (TOFMS), comprehensive two-dimensional GC (GCxGC)-flame ionization detection (FID), and GCxGC-TOFMS is discussed for the characterization of the eight important representative components, including Z-alpha-santalol, epi-alpha-bisabolol, Z-alpha-trans-bergamotol, epi-beta-santalol, Z-beta-santalol, E,E-farnesol, Z-nuciferol, and Z-lanceol, in the oil of west Australian sandalwood (Santalum spicatum). Single-column GC-MS lacks the resolving power to separate all of the listed components as pure peaks and allow precise analytical measurement of individual component abundances. With enhanced peak resolution capabilities in GCxGC, these components are sufficiently well resolved to be quantitated using flame ionization detection, following initial characterization of components by using GCxGC-TOFMS.

Sidheswaran P. & Ganguli S. (1997) “Sandalwood Oil Substitutes – A Review” Supplement to Cultivation & Utilisation of Aromatic Plants 123-139.

Statham P. (1990) “The sandalwood Industry in Australia: A history” in Proc of the symposium on sandalwood in the Pacific : April 9-11, 1990, Honolulu, Hawai/technical co-ordinators: Lawrence Hamilton, C. Eugene Conrad. Pub: Symposium on Sandalwood Conservation (1^st: 1991: Honolulu, Hawaii). p26

Struthers R., Lamont B.B., Fox JED, Wijesuriya S. & Crossland T. “Mineral nutrition of Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum).” J. of Exptl. Botany 37(182), 1274-1284.

Talbot L. (1983) "Wooden gold. Early days of the sandalwood industry." Forest Focus 30, 21-31. pub W. Austr. Forest Dept, Perth.

Taylor D., Swift S. & Collins S. (2000) “Testing growth & survival of four sandalwood species in Queensland” Sandalwood Research Letter 10, 6-8.

Tonts M. (2001) Sandalwood Market Study (Draft Report) Perth: Dept of Agriculture.

Tonts M. & Selwood J. (2002) “Niche Markets, Regional Diversification and the Reinvention of Western Australia’s Sandalwood Industry” Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 94(5), 564-575.

Trueman, S., C. Warburton, E. James, Y. Fripp, and H. Wallace (2001) “Clonality in remnant populations of Santalum lanceolatum.” Sandalwood Research Newsletter 14, 1–4.

Wijesuriya S.R. & Fox J.E.D. (1985) “Growth and nutrient concentration of sandalwood seedlings grown in different potting mixtures.” Mulga Research Centre Journal 8, 33-40.

Woodall G.S. (2004) “Cracking the woody endocarp of Santalum spicatum nuts by wetting and rapid drying improves germination” Australian J. of Botany 52(2), 163-169.

Woodall G.S. & Robinson C.J. (2003) “Natural diversity of Santalum spicatum host species in south-coast river systems and their incorporation into profitable and biodiverse revegetation” Australian Journal of Botany 51(6), 741 –753.

Woodall G.S. & Robinson C.J. (2002) “Direct seeding Acacias of different form & function as hosts for Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum).” Conservation Science Western Australia 4(3), 130-134.

Valder C., Neugebauer M., Meier M., Kohlenberg B., Hammerschmidt F.-J., Braun NA (2003) “Western Australian Sandalwood oil – New Constituents of Santalum spicatum (R.Br) A DC. (Santalaceae)” J. Essent. Oil Res. 15(3), 178-186.

Valder C., Neugebauer M., Meier M., Kohlenberg B., Hammerschmidt F.-J., Braun NA (2003a) “Santalum spicatum (R.Br.) A DC. (Santalaceae) – nor-Helifolenal and Acorenol Isomers: Isolation and Biogenic Considerations” J. Essent. Oil Res. 15, 381-386.

Chinese Sandalwood

Chen F. (1999) "Cuttage of Santalum album." Zhong Yao Cai 22(3), 109-111

Abstract: The effects of cuttage times, miaternal plant ages, hormones and mediums on the taking root of a cutting were studied in 1991-1996. The results showed that the sprouts of germinating and growing 20-30 days from the cut back of maternal plant as cuttings, the rate of the taking root get to about 70%; the suitable cuttage time was in June to August; the proper medium was river sands, but the effects of hormones were not obvious.

Gao Z., Wu Y., Dong Z. & Wu W. (2004) "Habit & control of pests in Santalum album." Zhong Yao Cai 27(8), 549-51.

Abstract: The habit of 5 species pests from South China Botanical Garden was reported in this paper, they are Delias aglaia Linni, Zenzera coffeae Nietner, Parlatoria pergandii Comstock, Scarab (grub), Agrotis ypsilon Rottemberg. Their control methods were presented.

Li Y. (1997) "Preliminary studies on grafting of Santalum album." Zhong Yao Cai 20(11), 543-545. Abstract: With the purpose of propagating high production Clone of Santalum album, the best season and practical method of grafting, and the selection of shoots for scion are studied. The preliminary results show: The best season for grafting in Guangzhou District occurs from June to October, when the daily mean temperature is over 25 degrees C, the side graft is recommedable; the scion from 1-5-year old young trees is much in favor for grafting than that from adult trees. In the right condition, side grafting of Santalum album has had up to 80 percent success rate.

Yu J.G., Cong P.Z., Lin J.T., Fang H.J. (1988) "Studies on the chemical constituents of Chinese sandalwood oil & preliminary structures of five novel compounds". Yao Xue Xue Bao 23(11), 868-872.

Yu, J. G., Cong P.Z., et al. (1993). “Studies on the structure of alpha-trans-bergamotenol from Chinese sandalwood oil.” Acta Pharmaceutica Sinica 28(11), 840-844.

East African Sandalwood.

Kreipl A. Th. & König W.A. (2004) “Sesquiterpenes from the east African sandalwood Osyris tenuifolia” Phytochem 65(14), 2045-2049

Abstract: The essential oil of the east African sandalwood Osyris tenuifolia was investigated by chromatographic and spectroscopic methods. Beside several already known sesquiterpenes four new compounds could be isolated by preparative gas chromatography and their structures investigated by mass spectroscopy and NMR techniques. Two of the new compounds – tenuifolene (17) and ar-tenuifolene (15) – show a new sesquiterpene backbone. 2,(7Z,10Z)-Bisabolatrien-13-ol (23) and the cyclic ether lanceoloxide (21) belong to the bisabolanes.
Graphical Abstract: The essential oil of East African sandalwood Osyris tenuifolia was investigated by NMR, Mass spectrometry and chemical correlations. Four new sesquiterpenes including 15 and 17 with a new skeleton were identified.

Wells R. (2006) "On the scent: Rhona Wells investigates sandalwood poaching, the ugly downside of the luxurious natural perfumery raw material trade" Soap, Perfumery & Cosmetics Feb 2006 79(2), 31.

Cropwatch comments: Informative one-page article on the Tanzanian situation where sandalwood logs are smuggled to India for distillation to produce sandalwood oil.

East Indian Sandalwood / Sandalwood General

Adkoli N.S. & Kushalappa K.A. (eds)(1977) Proceedings of All India Sandal Seminar, Bangalore, 7-8 February, 1977. Myforest, Special Issue. pub Karnataka Forest Dept, Bangalore.

An S., Lee A.Y., Lee C.S., Kim D.W., Hahm J.H., Kim K.J., Moon K.C., Won Y.H., Ro Y.S., Eun H.C. (2005) "Contact Dermatitis 53(6) , 320-323.

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to determine the frequency of responses to selected fragrances in patients with suspected fragrance allergy and to evaluate the risk factors. 9 dermatology departments of university hospitals have participated in this study for the past 1 year. To determine allergic response to fragrances, 18 additional fragrances in addition to the Korean standard and a commercial fragrance series were patch-tested in patients with suspecting cosmetic contact dermatitis. Over 80% of the patients were women, and the most common site was the face. Cinnamic alcohol and sandalwood oil (Santalum album L.) showed high frequencies of positive responses. Of the specific fragrances, ebanol, alpha-isomethyl-ionone (methyl ionone-gamma) and Lyral (hydroxyisohexyl 3-cyclohexane carboxdaldehyde) showed high positive responses. We compared the results obtained during this study with those of other studies and concluded that including additional fragrance allergens may be useful for the detection of fragrance allergy.

Ananthapadmanabha H.S. (2000) “The present status of sandalwood in India & Australia” PAFAI Journal 2, 33-36.

Angadi, V. G. & Anathapadmanabha H.S. (1988). “Variations in isoenzyme pattern associated with spike disease in sandal.” Indian Journal Of Forestry 11(1), 37-38.

Anil, V. S. and K. S. Rao (2000). “Calcium-mediated signaling during sandalwood somatic embryogenesis. Role for exogenous calcium as second

messenger.” Plant Physiology August 2000 123(4), 1301-1311.

Anon (1999) “Tree farming: More on sandalwood cultivation: Economics of sandalwood plantations.” Agric. & Industry Survey, Mar/April pp30-32.

Anon (1997) “Sandalwood Oil Crop Suffers Burn” HerbalGram 41, 54.

Anonis D.P. (1998) “Sandalwood & Sandalwood Compounds” Perf. & Flav. 23(5), 19-24.

Bagchi, S. K. & Veerendra H.C.S. “Variation and relationship in developmental growth phases of Santalum album after pruning.” Indian Forester 117(12), 1053-1058.

Bajgrowicz J.A. & Frater G. (2000) "Chiral recognition of sandalwood odourants." Enatiomer 5(3-4), 225-234.

Abstract: Looking for more efficient sandalwood oil smelling compounds, new campholenic aldehyde derivatives with rigidifying cyclopropane rings were prepared. For some of them, having the lowest odor threshold ever measured for this type of odorants and a very appreciated scent, close to that of the scarce natural sandalwood oils, pure stereoisomers were obtained and their olfactory propertie were evaluated. Thus acquired structure-odor relationship data, together with consolidated and completed previous knowledge on structurally different sandalwood-smelling compounds, allowed to propose new models of the sandalwood olfactophore.

Banerjee S., Ecavade A. Rao A.R. (1993) “Modulatory influence of sandalwood oil on mouse hepatic glutathione S-transferase activity and acid soluble sulpydryl level” Cancer Lett 68(2), 105-9.

Abstract: The effect of the oil from the wood of Santalum album on glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity and acid soluble sulphydryl (SH) levels in the liver of adult male Swiss albino mice was investigated. Oral feeding by gavage to mice each day with 5 and 15 microliters sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days exhibited an increase in GST activity in time- and dose-responsive manners. Feeding a dose of 5 microliters sandalwood oil for 10 and 20 days caused, respectively, a 1.80-fold (P < 0.001) and 1.93-fold (P < 0.001) increase in GST enzyme activity, while feeding a dose of 15 microliters of the oil per day for 10 and 20 days induced, respectively, 4.73-fold (P < 0.001) and 6.10-fold (P < 0.001) increases in the enzyme's activity. In addition, there were 1.59-fold (P < 0.001) and 1.57 (P < 0.001) increases in acid-soluble SH levels in the hepatic tissue of the mice following feeding of the oil at the dose levels of 5 and 15 microliters for 10 days. Furthermore, mice fed on a diet

containing 1% 2(3)-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (positive control) also showed an increase in hepatic GST activity and SH levels. Enhancement of GST activity and acid-soluble SH levels are suggestive of a possible chemopreventive action of sandalwood oil on carcinogenesis through a blocking mechanism.

Barret D.R. (1989) “Santalum abum (Indian Sandalwood) Literature Review” Mulga Research Centre Report No 3. Perth. Curtin University of Technology.

Barrett, D. R. & Fox J.E.D. (1994). “Early growth of Santalum album in relation to shade.” Australian Journal of Botany 42(1), 83-93.

Barrett, D. R. & D. Fox J.E.D. (1997). “Santalum album: Kernel composition,

morphological and nutrient characteristics of pre-parasitic seedlings under various nutrient regimes.” Annals of Botany 79(1), 59-66.

Bapat, V. A. & Rao P.S. (1984). “Regulatory factors for in vitro multiplication of

sandalwood tree (Santalum album): 1. Shoot bud regeneration and somatic embryogenesis in hypocotyl cultures.” Proceedings Of The Indian Academy Of Sciences Plant Sciences 93(1), 19-28.

Bapat, V. A. & Rao P.S. (1988). “Sandalwood plantlets from synthetic seeds.” Plant Cell Reports 7(6), 434-436.

Bapat, V. A., Fulzele D.P., et al. (1990). “Production of sandalwood somatic embryos in bioreactors.” Current Science 59(15), 746-748.

Bapat, V. A. & Rao P.S. (1992). “Biotechnological approaches for sandalwood (Santalum album L.) micropropagation.” Indian Forester 118(1), 48-54.

Bapat, V. A., Iyer R.K., et al. (1996). “Effect of cyanobacterial extract on somatic embryogenesis in tissue cultures of sandalwood (Santalum album).” Journal of Medicinal & Aromatic Plant Sciences 18(1), 10-14.

Benencia F. & Courreges M.C. (1999) “Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil against herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2.” Phytomed. 6(2), 119-23.

Abstract: Sandalwood oil, the essential oil of Santalum album L., was tested for in vitro antiviral activity against Herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2. It was found that the replication of these viruses was inhibited in the presence of the oil. This effect was dose-dependent and more pronounced against HSV-1. A slight diminution of the effect was observed at higher multiplicity of infections. The oil was not virucidal and showed no cytotoxicity at the concentrations tested.

Beyer A., Wolschann P., Becker A., Pranka E. & Buchbauer G. (1988) "Conformational calculations in odiferous molecules of sandalwood." Montash. Chem. 119, 711.

Beyer A., Wolschann P., Becker A., Pranka E. & Buchbauer G. (1988) "Conformational calculations in sandalwood odour molecules" Flav. Frag. J. 3, 173.

Bhaskar, V. (1992). “”Pollination biology and fertilization in Santalum album L.

(Santalaceae).” Flora Jena 187(1-2), 73-78.

Bhaskar V. & Swami Rao N. (1999) “Vegetative and physico-anatomical traits and their relation heartwood content in small leaved and large leaved forms of sandal tree (Santalum album L.).” PAFAI Journal 1, 33-38.

Bhattacharya, A. & Lakshmi S.G. (1999). “Isolation and characterization of PR1 homolog from the genomic DNA of sandalwood (Santalum album L.).” Current Science 77(7), 958-961.

Bhattacharya, A. & Sita G.L. (1998). “cDNA cloning and characterization of a proline (or hydroxyproline)-rich protein from Santalum album L.” Current Science 75(7), 697-701.

Bieri S., Monastyrskaia K. & Schilling B. (2004) "Olfactory receptor neuron profiling using sandalwood odourants" Chem Senses 29(6), 483-487.

Abstract: The mammalian olfactory system can discriminate between volatile molecules with subtle differences in their molecular structures. Efforts in synthetic chemistry have delivered a myriad of smelling compounds of different qualities as well as many molecules with very similar olfactive properties. One important class of molecules in the fragrance industry are sandalwood odorants. Sandalwood oil and four synthetic sandalwood molecules were selected to study the activation profile of endogenous olfactory receptors when exposed to compounds from the same odorant family. Dissociated rat olfactory receptor neurons were exposed to the sandalwood molecules and the receptor activation studied by monitoring fluxes in the internal calcium concentration. Olfactory receptor neurons were identified that were specifically stimulated by sandalwood compounds. These neurons expressed olfactory receptors that can discriminate between sandalwood odorants with slight differences in their molecular structures. This is the first study in which an important class of perfume compounds was analyzed for its ability to activate endogenous olfactory receptors in olfactory receptor neurons.

Bock J. (2003) “Sandalwood oil’s effect on the autonomic nervous system” Original Internist 3/1/2003.

Abstract: The hypothesis is sandalwood oil causes a decrease in sympathetic tone as accessed by patients with Heart Rate Variation (HRV), blood pressure (systolic, diastolic, and pulse pressure) and pulse rate.

Bohlmann F. & Zedro C. (1968) “Isolierung von (-)-a-santalal aus Piqueria Trinerva” Tetrahedr. Lett. 1533.

Brand, J.E. 1994. “Genotypic variation in Santalum album.” Sandalwood Research Newsletter 2, 2-4..

Braun N.A., Meier M., Kohlenberg B., Valder C. & Neugebauer M. (2003) “Santalum spicatum (R.Br.) A. DC. (Santalaceae) – nor-helifolenal and acorenol isomers: isolation & biogenic considerations.” J. Essen. Oil. Res. 15, 381-386.

Braun N.A., Meier M., Schmaus G., Hölscher B. & Pickenhagen “Enantioselectivity in odour perception: synthesis & olfactory properties of iso-b-bisabolol, a new natural product” Helv. Chim. Acta 86, 2698-2708.

Brunke E.-J. & Hammerschmidt F.-J. (1980) “New Constituents of East Indian Sandalwood oil”. Proceedings of VIII Congress Intl. Des Huiles Essentielles Oct 1980 Pub. 1982 Fedarom.

Brunke E-J. & Rojahn W. (1980) “Sandalwood Oil” Dragoco Report 5, 127-135.

Brunke E-J (1983) “Woody Aroma Chemicals” Dragoco Report 6/1983 p146

Brunke E-J. & Hammerschmidt F.-J. (1988) “Constituents of East Indian Sandalwood Oil – an eighty year old stabilty test” Dragoco Report 4/1988 pp107-113.

Brunke E.J. & Schmaus (1995) “New active odour constituents in Sandalwood Oil: part 2: Isolation, structural elucidation and synthesis of nor-a-trans-bergamotenone” Dragoco Report 6/1995 p245-257.

Brunke, E. J., Vollhardt J., et al. (1995). “Cyclosantalal and Epicyclosantalal-New Sesquiterpene Aldehydes from East Indian Sandalwood Oil.” Flavour and Fragrance Journal 10(3), 211-219

Brunke E-J, Fahlbusch K-G, Schmaus G & Volhart (1997) “The chemistry of

sandalwood odour – a review of the last 10 years”. In Rivista Ital. EPOS (Actes des 15emes Journeés Internationales Huilles Essentielles; Digne-les-Baines, France 5-7th Sept 1996 special issue 01/97) pp49-83.

Brunke E.J. & Tumbrink L. (1986) "First total synthesis of spirosantalol." Progress in Essential Oil Research pp321-327.

Brunke E.-J. Hammerschmidt F.-J. & Struwe H. (1980) "(+)-epi-Santalol Isolierung aus Sandelholzol und Partialsynthese aus (+) -alpha-Santalol. Tetrahedron Lett. 2405.

Brunke E.-J. & Klein E. (1982) "Chemistry of Sandalwood Fragrance" In Fragrance Chemistry. The Science of Smell, Academic Press NY p397.

Buchbauer G., Stappen I., Pretterklieber C & Wolschann P. (2004) “Structure–activity relationships of sandalwood odorants: synthesis and odor of tricyclo β-santalol” Eur J Med Chem 39(12), 1039-1046.

Abstract: In a series of structure–odor relationship investigations the synthesis of a new tricyclic β-santalol derivative is described. The product of a multi-step synthesis appears in an olfactive evaluation more or less odorless,

may be slightly creamy but definitely with no sandalwood odor. This modification with a bulky aliphatic bridge in the neighbourhood of the quaternary C3-atom demonstrated the sensitivity of sandalwood odor on the

structure of β-santalol analogues.

Buchbauer G., Winiwarter S. & Wolschann P. (1992) "Surface comparisons of some odour molecules: conformational calculations on sandalwood odour V. J. Comput. Aided Mol. Des. 6(6), 583-592.

Abstract: Molecular surface comparison seems to be a very suitable tool for the investigation of small differences between biologically active and inactive compounds of the same structural type. A fast method for such comparisons, based on volume matching followed by the estimation of comparable surface dots, is presented and applied on a few selected sandalwood odour molecules.

Castro J.M., Linares-Palomino P.J., Salido S., Altarejos J., Nogueras & Sanchez A. (2005) "Enantiospecific synthesis, separation & olefactory evaluation of all diastereomers of a homologuee of the sandalwood odournt Polysantol." Tetrahedron 61(47), 11192-11203.

Abstract. The four stereoisomers of (5E)-4,4-dimethyl-6-(2′,2′,3′-trimethylcyclopent-3′-en-1′-yl)-hex-5-en-3-ol, a homologue of the valuable sandalwood-type odorant Polysantol^®, were enantiospecifically synthesized from (+)- and (−)-α-pinene, through (−)- and (+)-campholenic aldehyde, by aldol condensation with 3-pentanone, deconjugative α-methylation and reduction. The mixtures of epimeric alcohols obtained after reduction were separated by means of derivatization with (−)-(1S)-camphanic chloride. The enantiomerically pure final products were evaluated organoleptically.

Chhabra, S. K. & Rao A.R. (1993). “Postnatal modulation of xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in liver of mouse pups following translactational exposure to sandalwood oil.” Nutrition Research 13(10), 1191-1202.

Christenson P.A., Secord N. & Willis B.J. (1981) Phytochemistry 20(5), 1139-1141.

Abstract: An analysis of East Indian sandalwood oil (Santalum album) has resulted in the isolation and identification of trans-β-santalol and epi-cis-β- santalol.

Choudhuri J.C.B. (1963) "Sandalwood tree & its diseases." Indian Forester 89(7), 456-462.

Courreges B.F. (1999). "Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil against Herpes simplex viruses- 1 and 2." Phytomedicine 6, 119-123.

Demole E., Demole C. & Enggist P. (1976) “A chemical investigation of volatile constituents of volatile constituents of East Indian Sandalwood oil (Santalum album L.)” Helv. Chim. Acta 59,737.

Desai, V. B., Hiremath R.D., et al. (1991). “On the pharmacological screening of HESP and sandalwood oils.” Indian Perfumer 35(2), 69-70.

Dey S. (2002) “Mass cloning of Santalum album L. through somatic embryogenesis: scale up in bioreactor.” Sandalwood Research Newsletter (Australia), 13, 1-3.

Dijkstra J. & Hiruki C. (1974) “A histochemical study on sandal (Santalum album) affected with spike disease and its diagnostic value.” Netherlands J. of Plant Pathology 80(2), 37-47.

Dijkstra J. & Lee P.E. (1972) “Transmission by dodder of sandal spike disease and the accompanying mycoplasma-like organisms via Vinca rosea.” Netherlands J. of Plant Pathology 78(5), 218-224.

Dwivedi C., Abu Ghazaleh A. (1997) “Chemopreventive effects of Sandalwood oil on skin papillomas in mice” Eur J Cancer Prev 6(4), 399-401.

Abstract: The essential oil, emulsion or paste of sandalwood (Santalum

album L.) has been used in India as an ayurvedic medicinal agent for the treatment of inflammatory and eruptive skin diseases. In this investigation, the chemopreventive effects of sandalwood oil (5% in acetone, w/v)

on 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-(DMBA)-initiated and 12-O-tetradecanoyl phorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-promoted skin papillomas, and TPA-induced ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity in CD1 mice were studied.

Sandalwood oil treatment significantly decreased papilloma incidence by 67%, multiplicity by 96%, and TPA-induced ODC activity by 70%. This oil could be an effective chemopreventive agent against skin cancer.

Dwivedi C. & Zhang Y. (1999) “Sandalwood oil prevent skin tumour development in CD1 mice.” Eur J Cancer Prev 8(5),449-55.

Abstract: Sandalwood oil (SW oil) has been used for the treatment of

inflammatory and eruptive skin diseases. In the present study, the chemopreventive effects of SW oil on 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)-anthracene (DMBA)-initiated and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate(TPA)-promoted

skin tumour development and TPA-induced ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) activity in CD1 mice were investigated. Female CD1 mice (5-6 weeks old) were divided in different groups, having 30 mice in each group. One week after topical application of DMBA (200 nmole in 100 microl acetone) alone or with SW oil at different concentrations (100 microl, 1.25, 2.5, 3.75, 5% in acetone), at different times (0.5, 1, 2 h) before DMBA, the mice were treated topically with TPA (5 nmole in 100 microl acetone) alone or with SW oil at different concentrations (100 microl, 1.25, 2.5, 3.75, 5% in acetone) at different times (0.5, 1, 2 h) before TPA applications twice a week for 20 weeks. The mice were weighed and papillomas counted weekly. The results indicate that SW oil pre-treatment decreased the papilloma incidence and multiplicity in a concentration and time-dependent manner. The pre-treatment with 5% SW oil (100 microl) 1 h before DMBA and TPA treatments provided a maximum of 67% and 96% decrease in papilloma incidence and multiplicity, respectively, after 20 weeks of promotion. The mice pre-treated with SW oil at all concentrations and time period before TPA had significantly lower ODC activity than the group treated with TPA alone. The data suggest that SW oil

could be an effective chemopreventive agent against chemically-induced skin cancer.

Dwivedi C, Guan X, Harmsen WL, et al. (2003) "Chemopreventive effects of alpha-santalol on skin tumor development in CD-1 and SENCAR mice." Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 12,151–6.

Erligman A. (2001) “Sandalwood Oils” Int. J. of Aromatherapy 11(4), 186-192.

Fernandes, P. C., Bapat V.A. et al. (1992). “In vivo germination of encapsulated somatic embryos of Santalum album L. (Sandalwood).” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 30(9), 839-841.

Fernandes, P., Bapat V.A., et al. (1994). “Effect of crushed seed homogenate on germination of synthetic seeds of Santalum album L.” Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 32(11), 840-841.

Fernandes, P. C., Bapat V.A., et al. (1994). “Investigations on the development of somatic seeds of Santalum album L. (Sandalwood).” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences India Section B Biological Sciences 64(1), 1-8.

Florento, A. (1997) “Sandalwood Oil Faces Trouble as Crop is Destroyed by Fire” Chemical Marketing Reporter March 31, 1997.

Fox JED. (2000) “Sandalwood: the royal tree” Biologist London 47(1), 31-34.

Fragrance raw materials monographs (1974): “Sandalwood oil, East

Indian”Food & Cosmetics Toxicology 12(7-8), 989-990.

Hatt H.H. & Schoenfeld R. (1956) “Some seed fats of the Santalaceae family.” 7(2), 130-133.

Heissler D. & Riehl J.-J. (1980) “Synthesis with benzenesulfenyl chloride. On the structure of a C12H18 hydrocarbon from East Indian sandalwood oil” Tetrahedron Letters 21(49), 4711-4714.

Abstract: The tetracyclic hydrocarbon was synthesized by means of the electrophilic addition of benzenesulfenyl chloride to an appropriately substituted methylenenorbornene. The synthetic methodology used to prepare this letter compound includes a mild enol ether hydrolysis with acidic silica gel.

Herbert C. Kretschmar, Zachary J. Barneis and William F. Erman (1970) “The isolation and synthesis of a novel tetracyclic ether from East Indian sandalwood oil. A facile intramolecular prins reaction” Tetrahedron Letters 11(1), 37-40.

Hill R., Harne R.W. & Nayar R.M. (1969) “Mycoplasma-like bodies associated with sandal spike” Nature 224, 1121-1122.

Hongratanaworakit T. Dissertation, "Effects of fractions of sandalwood oil on human physiological parameters by inhalation and massage." Vienna, Austria. June 2001. (through Bock J. (2003)).

Hongratanaworakit T., Heuberger E., Buchbauer G. (2000). “Effects of sandalwood oil & alpha-santalol on humans I: Inhalation, poster presentation, 31st ISEO, Sept 2000, Hamburg, Germany.

Hongratanaworakit T., Heuberger E., Buchbauer G. (2000). ““Effects of sandalwood oil & alpha-santalol on humans II: percutaneous administration, poster presentation, 31st ISEO, Sept 2000, Hamburg, Germany.

Hopkins C.Y. & Chisholm M.J. (1969) "Fatty acid composition of some Santalaceae seed oils." Phytochem. 8, 161-165.

Heuberger E., Hongratanaworakit T., Buchbauer G. (2001) “Biological properties of the essential oil of East Indian sandalwood (Santalum album L.) and its main compounds alpha- and beta-santalol.” Oral presentation 4éme Symposium Internat. D’Aromatherapie Scientifique, March 2001, Grasse, France.

Heuberger E., Hongratanaworakit T., Buchbauer G. (2001) “Die Wirkung von Sandelholzöl auf das autonome Nervensystem und die subjective Befindlichkeit.” Vortrag 3, Internat. Primavera Life-Kongress Oct 2001.

Herzogenaurach, Deutschland.Hongratanaworakit T., Heuberger E., Buchbauer G. (2004) “Evaluation of the effects of East Indian sandalwood oil and alpha-santalol on humans after transdermal absorption.” Planta Med 70(1), 3-7.

Abstract: The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of East Indian sandalwood oil (Santalum album, Santalaceae) and alpha-santalol on physiological parameters as well as on mental and emotional conditions in healthy human subjects after transdermal absorption. In order to exclude any olfactory stimulation, the inhalation of the fragrances was prevented by breathing masks. Eight physiological parameters, i. e., blood oxygen saturation, blood pressure, breathing rate, eye-blink rate, pulse rate, skin conductance, skin temperature, and surface electromyogram were recorded. Subjective mental and emotional condition was assessed by means of rating scales. While alpha-santalol caused significant physiological changes which are interpreted in terms of a relaxing/sedative effect, sandalwood oil provoked physiological deactivation but behavioral activation. These findings are likely to represent an uncoupling of physiological and behavioral arousal processes by sandalwood oil.

Howes M.-J. R., Simmonds M.S.J. & Kite G.C. (2003) “Evaluation of the quality of sandalwood essential oils by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry” Journal of Chromatography A, 1028(2), 307-312.

Abstract: Trade and historic oils from ‘sandalwoods’, labelled as Amyris balsamifera, Eremophila mitchelli, Fusanus acuminatus (= Santalum acuminatum), Santalum album, S. austrocaledonicum, S. latifolium, S. spicatum and S. yasi, were assessed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Using GC–MS, none of the oils assessed complied with the internationally recognised standard of a 90% santalol content, and only about half of the trade sandalwood oils met with recent International Organisation for Standardisation standards. The majority of trade oils, reportedly from S. album, contained approximately 50–70% santalols (Z-α and Z-β). Thus, the internationally recognised specification (90% santalols) for S. album requires re-evaluation by more efficient analysis methods. In view of the issues associated with the quality of sandalwood oils being traded, specifications of ≥43% Z-α-santalol and ≥18% Z-β-santalol for S. album oil estimated by GC–MS are suggested. GC–MS are recommended as it assists with authentication and quality control issues associated with sandalwood oils.

Cropwatch comments: The authors seem confused. The 90% santalols figure is largely a relict of the past from when wet chemical determinations were carried out by the acetylation method on Sandalwood oils (e.g. by EOA Determination 1B as set out in EOA Spec. No 103), and this result is not directly comparable to information revealed by modern high performance capillary GC/MS determinations. The latter can break down the identity of a number of santalol isomers within sandalwood oil, and can help identify other sesquiterpene alcohols which might have previously have been included with the total santatols figure by the wet chemical procedure. Thus, by high performance capillary gas chromatography, a different story unfolds, and some 16 years previously, Verghese et al. (1990a) established that in Sandalwood oil E.I. the normal range is as follows: a-santalol 40-45% and b-santalol 17-27% [Lawrence (1991) q.v.]. The ISO standard ISO 3518 (2002) for sandalwood oil is surely taken by most workers as the current standard for the commodity and sets the limits on the Z-a-santalol content to 41-55% and the Z-b-santalol content to 16-24%. Cropwatch does not accept therefore that the situation for steam distilled sandalwood oils is quite as Howes et al. present it. Sandalwood extracts – via the benzene (etc.) extraction of sandalwood powder to produce sandalwood concrete, followed by methanolic extraction to produce a so-called ‘oil’ – can however produce high santalol containing sandalwood commodities in higher yield than steam distillation, which are sometimes traded as ‘oils’ or mixed in with the normal oil. Co-distillation technology with high boiling solvents (which are subsequently removed) can also produce high santalol containing sandalwood ‘oils’. East African sandalwood oil and certain fractions of Australian sandalwood oil have also frequently been added as adulterants to traded East Indian sandalwood oils. The analyst should be aware therefore that not everything offered as sandalwood oil is as necessarily ‘100% derived from the botanical source’ – but this is hardly news to any experienced essential oil analyst!

Husain M., Ponnuswamy A.M. & Ponnuswamy P.K. (1982) “An innovation in the vegetative propagation of sandal (Santalum album L.).” Indian J. Forest. 5, 1-7.

ISO 3518 Oil of Sandalwood 2nd edn 2002. pub. ISO.

Geneva 2002. Iyengar A.V.V. (1972) “Control of Sandal spike” Current Science 41(9), 318-319.

Iyenger A.V.V. (1972) "Some aspects of sandal spike disease" J. Scient. Ind. Res. 31, 331-342.

Jain SH., Angadi VG., Ravikumar G., Thegrajan KS & Shankaranarayana (1999) “Studies on cultivation & chemical utilisation of sandal (Santalum album L.).” PAFAI Journal 1, 49-53.

Jie, M. S. F. L. K., Pasha M.K. et al. (1996). “Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of santalbic acid and a study of triacylglycerol species in Santalum album (Linn.) seed oil.” Lipids 31(10), 1083-1089.

Jirovetz L, Buchbauer G, & Jager W. (1992) “Analysis of fragrance compounds in blood samples of mice by gas chromatography, mass spectrometery, GC/FTIR and GC/AES after inhalation of sandalwood oil.” Biomed. Chromatography 6, 133-134.

Jirovetz L., et al. (1988). “Differentiation of double bond isomers of sesquiterpene alcohols in East Indian sandalwood oil by means of GC-MS and GC-FTIR: Dihydrosantalols.” Spectroscopy 6(5-6), 283-294.

John M.D, Paul T.M. & Jaiswal P.K. (1991) “Detection of adulteration of polyethylene glycol in oil of sandalwood” Indian Perfumer 35, 186-187.

Jyothi, P. V., J. B. Atluri, et al. (1991). “Pollination ecology of Santalum album (Santalaceae).” Tropical Ecology 32(1), 98-104.

Kapoor M.L. (1981) “A technique for chromosome count from developing leaf

buds of induced tetraploids & diploid Santalum album L.” Indian Forester 107, 290-300.

Kababick, J. P. (1996). “Evaluation on incense purity using simultaneous steam distillation-extraction and HRGC analysis.” Journal of High Resolution Chromatography 19(4), 241-242.

Kaur M., Agarwal C., Singh R.P., Guan X., Dwivedi C., Agarwal R. (2005) "Skin cancer chemopreventive agent alpha-santalol, induces apoprotic death of human epidermoid carcinoma A 431 cells via caspase activation together with dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potentail & cytochrome c release." Carcinogenesis 26(2), 369-380.

Abstract: alpha-Santalol, an active component of sandalwood oil, has been studied in detail in recent years for its skin cancer preventive efficacy in murine models of skin carcinogenesis; however, the mechanism of its efficacy is not defined. Two major biological events responsible for the clonal expansion of transformed/initiated cells into tumors are uncontrolled growth and loss of apoptotic death. Accordingly, in the present study, employing human epidermoid carcinoma A431 cells, we assessed whether alpha-santalol causes cell growth inhibition and/or cell death by apoptosis. Treatment of cells with alpha-santalol at concentrations of 25-75 microM resulted in a concentration- and a time-dependent decrease in cell number, which was largely due to cell death. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting analysis of Annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) stained cells revealed that alpha-santalol induces a strong apoptosis as early as 3 h post-treatment, which increases further in a concentration- and a time-dependent manner up to 12 h. Mechanistic studies showed an involvement of caspase-3 activation and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage through activation of upstream caspase-8 and -9. Further, the treatment of cells with alpha-santalol also led to disruption of the mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c release into the cytosol, thereby implicating the involvement of the mitochondrial pathway. Pre-treatment of cells with caspase-8 or -9 inhibitor, pan caspase inhibitor or cycloheximide totally blocked alpha-santalol-caused caspase-3 activity and cleavage, but only partially reversed apoptotic cell death. This suggests involvement of both caspase-dependent and -independent pathways, at least under caspase inhibiting conditions, in alpha-santalol-caused apoptosis. Together, this study for the first time identifies the apoptotic effect of alpha-santalol, and defines the mechanism of apoptotic cascade activated by this agent in A431 cells, which might be contributing to its overall cancer preventive efficacy in mouse skin cancer models.

Kawanishi Y., Nin K. & Toyoda K. (2004) “The influence on the autonomic nervous system of a preference for the smell of sandalwood” Aroma Research

5(4), 382-385.

Khan M.M.., Faroqui A.A., Vasundhara M. & Srinisappa K.N. (1999) “Clonal propagation of sandalwood (Santalum album Linn.) PAFAI Journal 1, 20-24.

Kim T.H., Ito H., Hayashi K., Hasegawa T., Machguchi T., & Yoshida T. (2005) "Aromatic constituents from the heartwood of Santalum album." Chem Bull Pharm (Tokyo) 53(6), 641-646. Abstract: A phytochemical investigation of the polar constituents in the heartwood of Indian Santalum album L. resulted in the isolation of three new neolignans (1-3) and a new aromatic ester (4), along with 14 known components. The structures of the new compounds (1-4) were established using spectroscopic methods.

Kim T.H., Ito H., Hatano T., Haswegawa T., Akiba A., Machiguchi T., Yoshida T. (2005) "Bisabolane & santalane-type sequiterpemoids from Santalum album of East Indian origin" J. Nat Products 68(12), 1805-1808.

Abstract: Six new bisabolane-type (1-3) and santalane-type (4-6) sesquiterpenoids, together with (+)-alpha-nuciferol, (+)-citronellol, and geraniol, were